Freedom is deeply rooted in Chinese society. For thousands of years, the rural villages have maintained a sort of autonomy with very little to do with the central government. Political geographers of the nineteenth century like Friedrich Ratzel consider the Chinese Empire as a huge federation of villages, each one of which is a body politic with its own laws, judicial organs and executive officers. In cities and towns, artisans and tradesmen arc organized into guilds with ways of settling differences between members. An old proverb Says, "don't go to a yamen"; and indeed the common people always prefer to settle their differences outside of the law courts established by imperial authority. The autonomous villages merely recognize the emperor as their protector, the giver of peace, and pay an annual tribute to him through his magistrates. In return, the emperor leaves the villages alone.
The unwritten laws of the villages arc quite different from the codes of the imperial dynasty. The former arc derived from custom and usage, meant to establish equity and good relations among its members. The imperial laws, on the contrary, are intended to maintain peace and order, and are notable for their severity in dealing with rebellions and other political offences. The village or common law is usually administered by elderly members of the clan or locality known for their wisdom and virtue. For this reason, their decisions arc usually wise and just, and the differences quickly settled without any expense.
Local autonomy is equally complete in the executive branch. The villages have their own schools, police, communal storehouses, public works, irrigation systems and relief organization's, all supported by local contributions which arc freely made by the wealthy. The district magistrates leave these organizations alone, and never try to control them. In North China, neighboring villages often form defensive leagues against bandits. During the Ts'ing and Han Dynasties, each village elected a triumvirate, invested with the functions of pastor, judge and police chief respectively, strikingly similar to the elected basileus of Greek free cities. The village triumvirate, as representatives of the people possessed the traditional right to approach the emperor directly, or any member of the bureaucratic hierarchy.
Village autonomy had been respected throughout the ages until about a generation ago when militarism and banditry followed the ill-fated attempt of Yuan Shih-kai to make himself emperor.
Of a long line of Chinese emperors, very few were real autocrats. Political tradition in China is against totalitarianism. All Chinese dynasties, including the alien dynasties of Yuan and Ts'ing, profess to respect tradition and custom, and without exception adopt the teachings of Confucius as the basic principles of government. Confucius taught, restraint and moderation. The Chinese emperor is not an irresponsible autocrat like Ivan the Terrible. He is not sacrosanct like the Mikado. When famines or other disasters occur in the Empire, he has to admit in public his errors, for he is supposed to be responsible for the welfare of the people. He holds a mandate from Heaven, and Heaven makes known His wish through the people. The Chinese emperor is not above criticism. In fact, he is constantly criticized by the "censors", men who command great respect in the Empire. Furthermore, the emperor has to give audience at daybreak every day of his reign. He is thus obliged to listen to the reports and recommendations of his ministers and generals. Inviolable chronologists of great courage and integrity, with a tradition dating back to Confucius himself, record every deed committed and every word uttered by the emperor, for the approval or condemnation of posterity. So there is an elaborate machinery to check the natural tendency of kings and emperors to be autocratic and arbitrary. We have very few Cromwells in our long history, and they always end in utter failure. Before the Mongol Conquest, China was undoubtedly the most liberal empire in the whole world.
All the military governments in Chinese history were of foreign origin, or directed by a foreign power. The military government of the Mongols created despotic regimes from the Russian steppes to the shores of the Pacific, an evil which the Chinese quickly eradicated with their liberation from the Mongol yoke. The Manchu Dynasty was basically also a military autocracy, although it was wise enough not to interfere with Chinese village autonomy, and was contented with very light taxation.
The Manchu Dynasty lost all popular support following the Sino-Japanese War when -the degenerate Manchus court made peace with the enemy in order to save the discredited monarchy. Had the country been in the hands of a better leadership, the Japanese undoubtedly would have been defeated in a prolonged war, and Russia, Germany and France would have intervened anyway for their own interest on behalf of China.
Since 1895, there has been a strong public opinion for constitutional government to curb even more the powers of the monarchy, to remove the last semblance of totalitarianism. All those against the movement have been swept away - the Manchus, Yuan Shih-kai, the quick succession of infamous warlords, and lastly the Japanese invaders. And there is not the least doubt that an imported totalitarianism with all the attributes of Russian barbarity imposed upon the Chinese people will fail. Nothing that is against the political tradition of a great nation can ever last!